| How to Write in Calligraphy Posted: 22 Jan 2017 04:00 PM PST Calligraphy (meaning "beautiful writing" in Greek) is the art of decorative handwriting. It is a practice spanning thousands of years and countless cultures. Though in the past it was used largely for religious purposes, it is now used for a variety of purposes. If you'd like to learn this beautiful art for yourself, read below. EditSample Alphabets EditWriting in Calligraphy - Outline or sketch the general shape and placement. If you want to, outline where you wish your characters to go on the page. You can simply leave basic base lines or you can outline the space for each character. If you want to get even more elaborate, you can design the entire page before you begin.
- Use a ruler to get the spacing right and look at references for your preferred style so that you can copy the general style of the letters.
- Hold your writing utensil correctly. The calligraphy brush will be held differently than the pens. The brush will also be held differently depending on whether you are using it for Western or Eastern calligraphy. Holding the utensil properly will help you form the letters correctly.
- For Eastern calligraphy, hold the brush so that it is nearly straight up and down in the first three fingers of your dominant hand. The closer to the bristles you hold it, the more defined the line will be. In this style, your elbow should be held high and your hand still, moving the brush only with your fingers.
- For Western calligraphy with the brush, hold it in much the same way you would use a normal paint brush. Using a brush for Western calligraphy, rather than a pen, will give your letters a rounder, more fluid form.
- For Western or Arabic calligraphy, hold your pen at a constant 30-60 degree angle with the point of the nib pointing away from you, up and to the left. When the wide part of the nib is parallel with the paper it will create a thicker line and when it is perpendicular it will create a thinner line. Quills will work in a similar manner.
- Create the letters. Form the letters on the page. Pay attention to how you are holding your writing utensil. Use line width variation to give the letters a pleasant form. Keep your strokes even and proportional.
- Be sure that you are not moving the writing utensil too slowly. This will cause too much ink to go onto the page and lead to bleeding and uneven lines.
- Allow the ink to dry before touching the lines. Make sure to keep the heel of your hand off of the paper, as this will cause the ink to smudge.
- Use pressure to control line width. You will want to use line width variation to make your letters have the calligraphy look. This can be done by controlling the angle of your drawing utensil, but it can often also be controlled by pressure. Press down harder for brief periods to get a thicker line and use only the lightest touch to get those hair-thin lines.
- Different nibs, or pen tips, will also help you get different line thicknesses. There are lots of different nibs and some are better for certain styles than others.
- Use the correct stroke order. Each letter or symbol will be made up of several different sections. These sections are done in a single movement, so they are called strokes. Which order you do these strokes in will matter, so be careful. It is advised that you follow the correct order of the strokes because they follow a certain rhythm.
- Stroke order will be different for different types of calligraphy. The best way to know how to do this is to get a book on calligraphy. A trick for Western calligraphy is to essentially use the same strokes as if you were writing normally (vertical, then horizontal lines, for example).
- Stroke order not only ensures that the sections overlap correctly and are even, it also often has philosophical significance!
- Protect your writing surface. You will want to make sure that the paper you are writing on doesn't get smudged. Some of this will require planning; write in such a way that your hand will not make contact with ink that is still wet. You will also want to protect the paper from anything you might already have on your hands, like grease. You can put an extra sheet of paper under the spot where your hand is to help protect your document.[1]
- Add decorations. Once the ink is dry you can add decorations and elaborations. This can take the form of illustrations, color, or gold embellishments. These will make your text stand out and give it more character and appeal.
EditPracticing to Perfect Your Skills - Practice freely. You can practice by simply writing with any instrument on any paper available. The most important thing is that you gain a steady hand and an understanding of how to vary your line widths. Practicing freely will allow you gain experience quickly and easily, since this can be done anywhere, with minimal materials and little pre-planning.
- Use the grid method. If you want to practice a little more formally, you can set up a grid to practice with. Draw a grid lightly, in pencil, with squares roughly 1"x1". Fill each row with repeated versions of whichever letter you wish to practice until your strokes are even and clean-looking. For some other calligraphy hands like Italic, they are formed using "nib widths". You can learn how to form such calligraphy rules here.
- Trace others' work. You can also learn by trying to recreate the work of others. Get images of calligraphy, either from the internet or calligraphy books, and cover the image in tracing paper. Write on the tracing paper, trying to recreate the strokes of the original. If you intend to use ink, be aware that it may bleed through the paper and prepare accordingly.
- Because of the issues with the paper bleeding, try to always use cheap photocopies or prints of the work you are tracing. This will keep you from rendering the original unusable.
EditMastering Calligraphy - Decide which style is right for you. There are several different kinds of calligraphy, corresponding with some of the calligraphic traditions which exist across the world. You will want to decide which one is right for you, based on which you prefer and why you are wanting to learn calligraphy.
- Western Calligraphy is the style with which most people in the English-speaking world are acquainted. This style arose with the creation of the Latin script. It is most often see in Bibles and illuminated manuscripts, often accompanied by illustrations.
- Eastern Calligraphy is the style of Japanese, Chinese or Korean decorative writing. A common and honored practice in the East, calligraphy is usually used to write poetry and add to paintings and other artwork.
- Arabic Calligraphy is a usually religious art form, common in the Islamic world. Muslims believe that to create art which depicts something real is morally wrong (as it insults God). Calligraphy as the main art form of the culture then arose in response to this.
- Sketch your ideas. Before you start a new piece, you will want to sketch out your ideas. Think about what you are wanting to write and where you would like it to go. Think about the space that you want to fill and how you intend to fill it. Draw a few quick, small images (with just a regular pen or pencil on scratch paper) to get you ready for creating your final image.
- Get the best paper. You will need paper to draw on . This can be as simple as printer paper or as elaborate as fine calligraphy paper. Use whatever material suits you best. Paper can be purchased from office stores, craft stores, and paper shops.
- You will want paper that is smooth. This will keep your writing utensil from catching or being redirected by the paper. Avoid paper which is greasy or waxy. These will keep the paper from absorbing the ink. You want to use a paper that does not cause the ink to bleed but instead dries quickly.
- Look for paper which is labeled as being acid-free and archival. This will ensure that your image does not age poorly. You will also want to look for paper which is labeled as being "sized". This is paper which has been treated to keep ink from bleeding.[2]
- Get a proper writing utensil. You will need some kind of utensil with which to create your calligraphy. While you can technically create calligraphy with any writing utensil, there are certain writing instruments which are considered better than others. Which you use, however, will depend upon what type of calligraphy you are doing and what writing utensil feels best to you.
- Dip pens are pens which you dip in ink. They consist of a wood, plastic or bone handle and a metal nib (the pointed end which will make contact with the paper). The nib is dipped in the ink and stores it in the well of the nib. This type of pen is most common for both Arabic and Western calligraphy, though it can be used for Eastern calligraphy as well.
- Fountain pens are similar to dip pens but instead draw their ink from a container within the pen. While this ink will occasionally need to be replaced or refilled, it will save you the trouble of constantly needing to dip your pen.
- Brushes, most commonly used in Eastern calligraphy but also in Western calligraphy, come in a variety of sizes but will usually all be roughly the same shape. These are dipped in ink and use the pressure and direction of the writer's strokes to form the line variations.
- Get the best ink for your style. You will need to get some kind of ink in order to write with. There are many different types of ink and which one you choose will partially depend on what you are writing with. Inks will also come in a variety of colors but black is the most commonly used color in all styles of calligraphy. Use whichever you prefer.
- Ink sticks, which will also require an ink stone, are sticks of ink which must be ground and mixed with water in order to form the ink you will write with. They are an excellent option for calligraphers because they allow you to get many different tones from the same ink, depending on how it is mixed. They can be found at craft stores and in some Asian stores, as well as online.
- Pot ink is the most common ink used for calligraphy. This ink comes pre-mixed in a small jar and your writing utensil will be dipped into it. India ink is the most common type of pot ink used in calligraphy. It is easily found at art stores.
- Fountain pen ink is a special kind of dye-based ink which is used for fountain pens. It is important to use fountain pen ink and only fountain pen ink in these types of pens as other ink types will clog the pen. Fountain pen ink will come in either pre-loaded barrels, which you place in your pen, or pots, in which case you fill the pen yourself.
- Get rulers or other guide instruments to give you the 'pro' look. You may wish to create guide lines for yourself, to ensure that your writing is straight. Or perhaps you wish to write across a curved or circular line and need a reference. Rulers and other guide instruments can help you keep your writing looking professional and even.
- Get tape or weights to cut down on frustration. You will want tape or weights to hold the paper in place while you are writing. This will keep you from skewing or bumping the paper while you are writing. You can also use clips or a drawing board.
- Be careful what kind of tape you use. If it is too strong, you will tear the paper when you try to remove the tape. Painter's tape is best.
EditThings You'll Need - chisel-pointed writing implement
- ink
- suitable paper
- an idea or example of what calligraphy alphabets look like. Good ones can be found here
- brush
- Suitable table, comfortable to work on
EditRelated wikiHows EditSources and Citations
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| How to Overcome Failure Posted: 22 Jan 2017 08:00 AM PST Overcoming failure is all about finding it in yourself to start again. First, you must overcome the sense of failure. The failure of a project, relationship, or other goal might initially overwhelm you, but if you acknowledge your disappointment and accept your mistakes you will be able to move on. Realistic optimism will help you form a new plan without setting yourself up for failure. Remember, your long term goal is resilience: the ability to adapt and thrive.[1] Each failure is a chance to grow stronger and wiser. EditFeeling Your Way Through Disappointment - Feel your emotions. When you feel you have failed, you may be overcome with self-recrimination, disappointment, and despair. Holding in your painful feelings can have negative effects on your health, your relationships, and your future success. Notice each emotion as it comes to you. Take time to name the emotion, be it anger, sadness, fear, or shame.[2] This will enable you to work through it without turning it on yourself or others.
- Take time to process your feelings. If you try to fix or move past your disappointment before knowing how you feel; you may act rashly.
- Suppressing painful feelings can lead to health problems, such as chronic pain, sleep deficiency, and even heart disease.[3]
- Accept what happened. After the first shock of disappointment wears off, work on accepting what happened. It will be harder to move forward if you blame yourself or others, or pretend that what happened didn't matter or didn't really happen. Write down or reflect on everything that happened, what lead to it and what the consequences were. State only the facts, without blame, judgment, or justification. Write in a journal if you have one, or write yourself a letter. [4]
 - If writing is not a helpful form of expression for you, find someone you can talk to. A trusted friend or family member, or a counselor, can help you move past denial.[5]
- Solicit the perspective of any involved parties who were not emotionally invested in the situation. For example, a friend might have seen early signs of fissure in a failed relationship.
- If you find yourself unable to move past denial – for example, you refuse to discuss or acknowledge what happened, or look at how you may have contributed to the failure, or you ignore the repercussions of what happened – examine what is holding you back. What are you afraid will happen if you acknowledge a failure?[6] Maybe you feel like a failure because your child has a substance abuse problem, and instead of dealing with it, you remain in denial and give her money to buy "clothes" when you know she's spending it on drugs.[7]
- Identify fears that are irrational or excessive.[8] Do you worry that failure calls your intelligence and capability into question? Do you imagine that you are the only one who has ever experienced this setback and that you are being judged? Are you worried that everyone will be disappointed or lose interest in you if you don't succeed?
- Reflect on the consequences of action and inaction. What can you achieve with action? What might be worsened by inaction?[9] Maybe you feel your relationship failed, and to avoid going through the pain of another breakup you refuse to date or examine what went wrong in the relationship. Inaction might allow you to protect yourself from rejection or the emotional pain of a breakup. It also means you are missing out on the fun and companionship of dating, and might be turning away from a potentially great relationship.
EditThinking Your Way Through Failure - Practice positive reframing. Positive reframing is all about discovering the positives in any situation, even failure. Look at the situation in which you feel you failed, and contemplate different ways of describing it. "Failure" is a subjective term. Instead of saying "I failed at finding work," say "I haven't found work yet" or "I've been looking for work longer than I had hoped." Don't attempt to whitewash your mistakes, but state them without judgment, and look for the best.[10]
- Another way to reframe the situation is to understand why your attempt wasn't successful, then use that information to try again. The only way anyone discovers what does work is by also finding out what doesn't work.
- Failure presents you with an opportunity to learn until you get it right.
- Consider all the athletes, scientists, and other successful people who have tried and failed, only to persevere until they achieved their goal. Michael Jordan was famously cut from his high school basketball team, only to work hard and become one of the greatest players of all-time.
- Try using humor to encourage yourself when you are down: "Well, I haven't found a job yet, but I have gotten really good at writing cover letters."[11] Seeing the humor in your situation helps you take a step back and see things in perspective.
- Humor is a key component of resilience: laughing kindly at yourself will help carry you through your greatest trials.[12]
- Identify negative thought patterns. With failure often comes the tendency to beat yourself up over it, even calling yourself names. Learn to identify some common negative thought patterns so you can diffuse them. These thoughts may include: all-or-nothing thinking ("I have to do it perfectly the first time or I might as well give up"); catastrophizing ("This is terrible. There's no way I can come back from this"); or negative self-labeling ("I'm a failure and a phony.").[13]
- When you notice these kinds of thoughts arise, question them. They are coming from an a negatively biased, critical place. Instead, ask yourself, "Is this really true?" Look for evidence for and against these claims.[14]
- Write down an affirmation that goes against he negative self-talk. If you keep thinking of yourself as a failure, write something like, "I am a capable person" on a sticky note and put it on your mirror. Say it aloud to yourself and you can begin to change your negative thinking.[15]
- Stop ruminating over the failure. Do you find that you can't stop thinking about what happened, replaying it over and over in your head? This is called rumination, and instead of providing insight about what you could have done differently or ways to improve, it just amplifies your negative feelings.[16]
- Try journaling to put your obsessive thinking to rest. Getting it out of your head and down on paper can give you some relief from rumination and help reveal any underlying fears.[17]
- Instead of doing a play-by-play, stop and ask yourself, "Okay, what have I learned here?" Maybe you learned you need to leave 30 minutes early for appointments so that you don't show up late to your next job interview.[18]
- Use mindful meditation to bring you back to the present. Mindful meditation helps you stop worrying about what happened in the past and focus on the here and now, and you can start asking yourself: what can I do differently today?
EditBouncing Back - Address the cause of the failure. What happened to throw your goal off track? Could it have been prevented? Think about possible solutions you could have put into action, and what their consequences would have been. Were your initial expectations unrealistic? Try discussing your expectations with loved ones and teammates to measure their realism.
- If you failed to get an expected promotion at work, ask for a meeting with your supervisor to discuss where you got off track. Wait until you have moved past the first, most emotional stages of disappointment. Come in with some idea of where you may have failed, and with questions for future improvement.
- If you have failed to find the sort of job you had hoped to find, try reading the online profiles of people who have that job. Do they have a different educational background than you have? More years of experience? Did they enter the workforce at a different time?
- If you were disappointed in love, ask yourself if you were putting unusual pressure or expectations on your romantic partner. Did you understand how they were feeling throughout the relationship? Did you support their projects and friendships?
- Set realistic goals. Once you have worked through the causes of your past disappointment, work on setting a more realistic goal for the future. What would you like to see happen next? What sorts of actions on your part could make success likelier? Check with people you trust to measure the realism of your new goal.[19]
- For instance, if you just ran your first half marathon and had hoped to run 7 minute miles, you were probably overly ambitious. Try setting a goal for the next race that is just a little faster than your last time. If you ran 10 minute miles, try running 9.7 minute miles. Train toward that time.
- If your previous goal had been to publish a novel by the end of the year, make your new goal more moderate. Your new goal might be to get feedback on your draft. Sign up for some novel-editing workshops, or hire a freelance editor or writing coach.
- Practice mental contrasting. Strike a balance between optimistic thinking and realistic planning by practicing mental contrasting. First imagine your desired goal working out beautifully. Let yourself envision a total success for a few minutes. Next, switch gears and imagine all the obstacles that might arise.[20] Envisioning the obstacles toward achieving reasonable goals can actually make you feel energized and more capable of tackling said issues. If the goal is unreasonable, however, this exercise is likely to allow you to let go of that wish and instead focus on something more achievable.
- Recognizing the obstacles between you and your goals should not be considered negative or unhealthy thinking. The exercise of mental contrasting will help you learn not to cling to unobtainable goals or to dwell on what cannot be done.[21]
- Change your approach. Brainstorm ideas and select the one that seems sturdiest. Use mental contrasting to test the solution out in your head. Ask yourself if you have the resources to put your new plan into place. What new problems are likely to come up? How will you solve them? What needs to be in place before you begin?[22]
- Avoid repeating the same mistakes. Your new approach should not include any of the strategies that may have caused your last approach to fail.
- Create a plan B. Even well-executed approaches can fail due to unforeseen complications. Make sure you re-enter the fray with a solid back-up plan.
- Try again. With your new goal set, and your new plan solidified, set out to achieve your goal. Take the time to reflect on your progress as your steps take effect. Feel free to change your approach. You are learning as you go, and a natural part of this process is to adjust and tweak your approach. Whether you achieve your goal or have to try again, you will have achieved a higher level of resiliency.
EditSources and Citations
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| How to Know the Difference Between Bacteria and Viruses Posted: 22 Jan 2017 12:00 AM PST Studying for a biology exam? Stuck in bed with the flu and curious to find out what sort of microorganisms have made you so sick? While bacteria and viruses can both make you sick in similar ways, they are actually very different organisms with a wide range of differing qualities. Learning these differences can help you stay informed about any medical treatments you're undergoing and give you a better understanding of the complex biology that's going on inside you all the time. You can learn how to tell the difference between bacteria and viruses not only by learning the basics about them but also by examining them through a microscope and discovering more about their makeup and functions. EditLearning the Differences - Learn the basic differences. There are key differences between bacteria and viruses in size, origins, and effects on the body.[1]
- Viruses are the smallest and simplest life form; they are 10 to 100 times smaller than bacteria.
- Bacteria are single-celled organisms that can live either inside or outside other cells. They can survive without a cellular host.[2] Viruses, on the other hand, are only intracellular organisms, meaning that they infiltrate the host cell and live inside the cell. Viruses change the host cell's genetic material from its normal function to producing the virus itself.
- Antibiotics cannot kill viruses, but can kill most bacteria, with the exception of bacteria that have become resistant to the antibiotic.[3] Misuse and overuse of antibiotics have led to antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics are becoming less effective against potentially harmful bacteria. [4] Gram-negative bacteria are highly resistant to treatment with antibiotics, but can be killed by some.[5]
- Recognize the differences in reproduction. Viruses must have a living host to multiply, such as a plant or animal. Meanwhile, most bacteria can grow on non-living surfaces.[6]
- Bacteria have all the "machinery" (cell organelles) needed for their growth and multiplication and usually reproduce asexually.
- By contrast, viruses generally carry information - for example, DNA or RNA, packaged in a protein and/or membranous coat. They need the host cell's machinery to reproduce. The "legs" of a virus attach onto the surface of the cell and then the genetic material contained inside the virus is injected into the cell. Put differently, viruses are not really "living", but are essentially information (DNA or RNA) that float around until they encounter a sufficient host.
- Determine whether the organism has a beneficial effect in the body. Though it may seem hard to believe, many, many tiny organisms live within (but are distinct from) our bodies. In fact, in terms of pure number of cells, most people are roughly 90% microbial life and only 10% human cells.[7] Many bacteria exist peacefully with our bodies; some even perform very important tasks, like making vitamins, breaking down waste, and making oxygen.[8]
- For example, much of the process of digestion is done by a type of bacteria called "gut flora." These bacteria also help maintain pH balance in the body.[9]
- While people are familiar with "good bacteria" (such as gut flora), there are also "good" viruses, such as bacteriophages, that "hijack" the bacteria's cellular mechanisms and cause cell death.[10] Researchers from Yale have designed a virus that may help defeat brain tumors.[11] Most viruses, however, have not been proven to perform any functions that are beneficial to humans. They typically only cause harm.
- Determine whether the organism meets the criteria for life. Though there is no precise, formal definition of what constitutes life, scientists agree that bacteria are undoubtedly alive. On the other hand, viruses are a bit more like zombies: they're not dead, but they're definitely non-living. For example, viruses have some characteristics of life, like having genetic material, evolving over time through natural selection, and being able to reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves. However, viruses don't have a cellular structure or their own metabolism; they need a host cell to reproduce. In other respects, viruses are basically non-living. Consider the following:
- When they have not invaded another organism's cell, viruses are essentially dormant in every way. No biological processes occur within them. They can't metabolize nutrients, produce or excrete wastes, or move around on their own. In other words, they are very similar to inanimate material. They can stay in this "non-living" state for long periods of time.[12]
- When the virus comes in contact with a cell that it can invade, it latches on and a protein enzyme dissolves part of the cell wall so that it can inject its genetic material into the cell. At this point, as it hijacks the cell to make copies of itself, it starts to show one important characteristic of life: the ability to move its genetic material into future generations, producing more organisms that are like itself.[13]
- Identify the bacterial and viral causes of common illnesses. If you are suffering from a disease and you know what it is, figuring out whether you are being affected by bacteria or a virus can be as simple as looking up information about your illness. Common illnesses caused by bacteria and viruses include:
 - Bacteria: Pneumonia, food poisoning (commonly caused by E. coli), meningitis, strep throat, ear infections, wound infections, gonorrhea.[14]
- Viruses: influenza, chickenpox, the common cold, Hepatitis B, rubella, SARS, measles, Ebola, HPV, herpes, rabies, HIV (the virus that causes AIDS).
- Note that some illnesses, like diarrhea and "head colds," can be caused by either type of organism.
- If you don't know what your illness is exactly, it is harder to tell the difference between bacteria and a virus because the symptoms for each can be difficult to distinguish. Both bacteria and viruses can cause nausea, vomiting, elevated temperatures, fatigue, and general malaise. The best (and sometimes only) way to determine whether you have a bacterial or viral infection is to see your doctor. Your doctor will perform lab tests to determine what kind of infection you have.
- One way to confirm whether you have a virus or bacteria is to assess whether your current antibiotic treatments are effective. Antibiotics such as penicillin will only help if you have a bacterial infection, as opposed to a viral infection. This is why you should not take antibiotics unless your doctor has prescribed them.
- Most viral infections and diseases, including the common cold, do not have cures, but there are anti-viral drugs that can often help manage or limit the symptoms and severity.
- Use this simple chart to learn the basic differences between bacteria and viruses. [15]
- Though there are more differences than the ones listed here, these are among the most important.
Biological Differences Between Bacteria and Viruses | Organism | Size | Structure | Reproductive Method | Treatments | Alive? | | Bacteria | Larger (about 1000 nanometers) | One cell: peptidoglycan/polysaccharide cell wall; cell membrane; ribosomes; DNA/RNA floating freely | Asexual. Duplicates DNA and reproduces by fission (splitting apart). | Antibiotics; antibacterial cleaners for external sterilizing | Yes | | Viruses | Smaller (20-400 nanometers) | No cells: simple protein structure; no cell wall or membrane; no ribosomes, DNA/RNA enclosed in protein coat | Hijacks a host cell, forcing it to make copies of viral DNA/RNA; new viruses released from host cell. | No known cures. Vaccines can prevent illness; symptoms may be treatable. | Unknown; do not meet all traditional standards for life.[16] | EditAnalyzing Microscopic Features - Look for the presence of a cell. In terms of structure, bacteria are more complex than viruses. Bacteria are what is known as unicellular. This means that each bacteria is made up of only one cell. By contrast, the human body contains many trillions of cells.[17]
- Viruses, on the other hand, do not have any cells. Viruses are made up of a protein structure called a capsid.[18] Though this capsid contains the virus's genetic material, it lacks the features of a true cell, such as cell walls, transport proteins, cytoplasm, organelles, and so on.[19]
- In other words, if you see a cell through the microscope, you know you're looking at bacteria and not a virus.
- Check the organism's size. One of the quickest ways to tell the difference between a bacterium and a virus is to determine whether you can see it with a regular microscope. If you can see it, it is not a virus. The average virus is about 10 to 100 times smaller than run-of-the-mill bacteria. They are so small that you cannot see a virus under a normal microscope, only its effects on cells. You need an electron or other extremely high-powered microscope to see viruses.[20]
- Bacteria are nearly always far bigger than viruses. In fact, the very biggest viruses are only just as big as the very smallest bacteria.[21]
- Bacteria tend to have dimensions of one to several micrometers (1000+ nanometers).[22] By contrast, most viruses have sizes of less than 200 nanometers, which means you won't be able to see them with most everyday microscopes.
- Check for ribosomes (and no other organelles). While bacteria have cells, they are not complex ones. Bacteria lack a nucleus and any organelles except for ribosomes.[23]
- You can spot ribosomes by looking for small, simple organelles. In cell drawings, they are usually represented as dots or circles.[24]
- By contrast, viruses lack all organelles, including ribosomes. In fact, besides the outer protein capsid, some simple protein enzymes, and genetic material in the form of DNA/RNA, there is not much else in the structure of most viruses.
- Monitor the organism's reproductive cycle. Bacteria and viruses aren't like most animals. They don't need to have sex or exchange genetic information with other organisms of the same type to reproduce. However, this is not to say that bacteria and viruses have the same reproductive strategies.
- Bacteria practice asexual reproduction. To reproduce, a bacteria replicates its own DNA, elongates, and splits into two daughter cells. Each daughter cell gets one copy of the DNA, making them clones (exact copies). You can usually watch this process occur under a microscope.[25] Each daughter cell will grow and eventually divide into two more cells. Depending on the species of bacteria and the external conditions, bacteria can multiply very rapidly this way. You can watch this process occur under a microscope and in this way tell a bacterium from a regular cell.
- Viruses, in contrast, can't reproduce on their own. Instead, they invade other cells and use their internal machinery to make new viruses.[26] Eventually, so many viruses are made that the invaded cell bursts open and dies, releasing the new viruses.
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