| How to Understand Binomial Nomenclature Posted: 08 May 2016 05:00 PM PDT Have you ever watched a nature show on TV or read a garden book about a plant and heard them use strange, hard-to-pronounce names? Ever try get more information about that specific plant by the name listed on the plant label or from memories of grandma's garden without knowing how to get results? Plants, microorganisms, and animals are often referred to by their common name, which is sort of like a nickname, but they also have a scientific name. This system is known as the Binomial Nomenclature. With this article you'll be better able to unlock the mystery behind these names and use them to your advantage. EditKnowing the Importance of Binomial Nomenclature - Understand how scientific names can be more helpful than common names. Let's take a lovely trip to the zoo, conservatory or aquarium. For example the species of cat we call a lion is known scientifically as Panthera leo. The more specific and precise name can help you identify and distinguish between animals that would be lumped together under one common name.
- The gopher common name for example can be referring to not only the gopher rodent species but also 5 species of turtle (Gopherus polyphemus) or snake (Pituophis catenifer) as well. Lady's Slipper flower in even the same garden center can mean two totally different plants! Also certain species of the same genus can be different sizes and have different environmental needs.
- Scientific names like your first and last name remain the same all over the world. The common names we use like giraffe and tiger aren't the same names used in other countries of the world.
- Many organisms don't have a common name for them. Often times these are new discoveries or ignored species. Many species of organisms still have to be completely examined and sorted out. Many common names are actually the organisms exact scientific name. This is really common in plant names like Poinsettia or Petunia. Sometimes the scientific name is accented or abstracted like Peony is the same name for Paeonia.
- Make use of the binomial nomenclature whenever your involved in any form of natural science. Geologic, astronomic, and medical fields for example have names that come from the same Latin language root and concept as the scientific name system only with one part or name instead of two. Canis Major is the Latin name of the dog constellation (pattern of stars).
- The same goes for dealing with anything even slightly or indirectly involving plants, microorganisms and/or animals. Natural herbal supplements(especially in drinks and food) and whenever you are looking for how toxic or potent a certain plant or animal is it's much better to know the scientific name as many such sites and companies only list that name and not the common name. This can be really handy when ordering herbs from foreign country. Knowing the scientific name of a venomous snake or plant can save the medical staff minutes if not hours of additional resource which can save a life as well. The names of many viral, parasitic and bacterial illnesses are in fact the names of the microorganisms causing the illness, flu is short for influenza. Streptococcus pneumoniae give us the pneumonia.
EditKnowing the Rules of Binomial Nomenclature - Use the basic three rules of Binomial Nomenclature to help you recognize a scientific name of an organism.
- All scientific names are in Latin. This is understood by members of the scientific community. Most of the names in this system come from the Latin language root. The same root where English Spanish and French languages come from. Often times the names are accented with extra letters like "sis" "ens" "ica".
- The scientific name always contains 2 words. Unless it's a subspecies or cultivar which is explained in further steps.
- The scientific name has very specific grammar rules. The genus is always the first name which is always capitalized. The species is always the second name without capitalization.
- The scientific name is most cases italicized.
EditRecognizing the Basic Parts of a Scientific Name - Approach this procedure as a process of elimination. Just like isolating a specific single pair of red designer sneakers from 12 similar pairs of shoes we are using the same mindset.
- Think of the scientific name as your own name, with the first and last parts reversed. It's similar to how an encyclopedia, dictionary or teacher will list last names first and first names last. Your last name designates your family of which your were born and your first name is referring to you a specific member of your family.
- Recognize that the first part of the scientific name is the genus. The genus refers to a specific group of organisms with something in common. Let's take the group of animals called Canis, also called the dog or wolf group. This includes wolves, foxes, coyotes and dogs. When we think of these animals we think about all the things associated with the wolf. A moderate to large size, their massive, well developed skulls and sharp teeth (called canines), long legs, and comparatively short ears and tails. They belong to the same genus.
- Learn that the last part of the scientific name is the species. Now we are going to pick a more specific group of animals with identical characteristics. From the large Canis genus group, we are going to take a creature many are very familiar with the gray wolf. The species name is lupus.
- Accept the fact that some organisms have more than one scientific name which is called a synonyms. As technology and natural science studies grow more advanced old scientific names are updated. The Norway spruce tree, was once called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use: it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies. That's because in earlier years of scientific studies any tree that had needle-like leaves and bearing cones was classified as a tree species of the genus Pinus (pine) and later research soon considered the fact that this "pine" tree had very different features from other pine trees (different cone shape) thus the genus Picea (spruce) genus was created.
EditRecognizing Changes and Exceptions in Naming - Learn how to recognize hybrids. A hybrid is a mixing of two distinct species of the same genus or two genus within a family (larger group of organisms with characteristics in common), whether by man or in nature. Hybrids are designated somewhere in the name by a x.
- The family in Binomial Nomenclature is a more broader group classification than the genus. It's like now we are not only dealing with one's simple immediate family but cousins (even far way) and other distant relatives. A good example is the diverse (Pinaceae) or pine family. All these species are species we use as Christmas Trees and they all produce fruits we call pine cones.
- Intergeneric hybrids are hybrids between two species from two separate genus within the same family. xFatshedera lizei a common houseplant is an example of this. Fatsia japonica (Japanese Fatsia) and Hedera helix (English Ivy) got crossed by humans. Notice how the two genus names got stuck together. The x is in the front of the genus.
- Interspecific hybrids are when two species within the same genus are involved. Petunia × hybrida, which is the typical Petunia flower sold in garden centers as a bedding plant, is a good example. This plant was created by crossing P. axillaris and P. integrifolia, two different species. Other times the two or more species are listed with the x presented before each species. The x in the case is in the middle. Even if the species name is missing like in named hybrids you'll see the x after the genus name.
- Some hybrid organisms do not have any binomial nomenclature and are not considered existing species by most scientists. The blood parrot cichlid (or more commonly and formally known as parrot cichlid; no binomial nomenclature) is a hybrid of the midas (A. citrinellus) and the redhead cichlid (Paraneetroplus synspilus) is an example of such a case.
- Watch for the signs of a subspecies or cultivar. Be careful here and don't worry a lot about this part because different situations change the rules here greatly. There's also a great deal of controversy here that professionals debate about. The only real rule here is there are three or more names in the scientific name. Two basic rules to keep in mind include:
- A subspecies is a specific population group that got isolated from the main group in some way and developed into a slightly different population with slight different characteristics. The subspecies name is in most cases written in Latin and italicized.The dog is a subspecies Canis lupus familiaris. This population of grey wolf started joining hunter gathering humans on hunts and became domesticated and did not breed with other wolves. All kinds of dogs from the poodle to rottweillers came from this ancient extinct wolf subspecies.
- There are 6 existing subspecies of the familiar jungle cat the tiger (Panthera tigris). The tiger we most likely see in zoos or associate with tigers is the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) which lives in India. However there's another tiger called the Siberian Tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) lives in Siberia also called Russia. This subspecies has paler colors, longer fur and is much larger than other tigers. The two populations of tiger are isolated by landscape and do not breed together.
- A cultivar is like a subspecies created by human. However they can also be hybrids. The specific cultivar name is designated with quotation marks and is not italicized and not always in Latin. We run into these a lot when we go shopping for fruits and vegetables. Red Delicious, Granny Smith, Yellow Delicious, Gala are all cultivars of Apples. Tagetes erecta 'Crackerjack Mix' is also a cultivar.
- Many cultivars are indeed natural subspecies marketed under a totally different name. This is very common in plant trades and in the aquarium fish market.
- There are also what are called sports, variants and mutants that humans isolate from main population and reproduce them for their own purposes. For example in a garden bed of red tulips the bulb breeding suddenly runs into a red tulip with yellow stripes. In a tank of regular goldfish one swims around with longer fins. The striped tulip and long finned goldfish are examples of a sport, variant, or mutant
EditFiguring the Meanings Behind the Names - Look for obvious and not so obvious clues within the name. Break down the names into smaller parts and mentally remove the accents. Look for other familiar words within the name.
- Believe it a huge number of the scientific names of plants and animals come from the name of the actual explorer or as a dedication to an loved or admired person. Joel Roberts Poinsett is the explorer of the Poinsettia.
- Many other names even come from Greek mythology like Helianthus the scientific name of the sunflower genus comes from Helios the sun god. Narcissus the genus of the familiar daffodil spring bulb flower comes from a Greek hunter who was so in love with his own looks he couldn't stop looking down at a reflection in the water until he died.
- Other names can from the name of a specific location. Chinensis, Japonica, are indeed the names of a country or even a tribe of people that live there. However Australia in some names means just south and not referring to the continent.
- Color names include Rubus (red) like the gemstone ruby, Aurea (yellow), Blanca (white), Niger (black). Azurea and Ceruleans also Lapis like the gemstone (blue).
- Names that explain sizes include superbus, gigantea (big), pumila miniata (minute size), reptans (low) altissima (tall).
- The word pseudo in any part of a name means false, or fake. If a species is easily confused with another similar species or genus it has this often added somewhere to the name. This also goes for any name ending in "oides".
- Use a reference to find out the origins of more difficult names. Yes, there are some scientific names that not fully understood even to the professionals. Some names have unknown origins. A good example is Chlorophytum comosum the name of the spider plant a popular houseplant, genus name practically means "Chlorophyll producing plant" yet every plant on earth produces chlorophyll.
- Sometimes scientists will change the scientific names for even tiny reasons. So scientific names can change very recently and the rest of us may never know it.
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| How to Take Care of Your Eyes Posted: 08 May 2016 09:00 AM PDT Your eyes are your windows to the world, so it's important to take good care of them. Things like seeing an eye doctor regularly, getting enough sleep, and giving your eyes regular breaks while you are using a computer can help keep your eyes in good health. If you are having problems with your vision, you should schedule an appointment with an optometrist as soon as possible. Keep reading to learn about some of the things you can do to help keep your eyes in good shape. EditPracticing Good Eye Care Habits - Visit an eye care practitioner regularly. These are trained professionals who specialize in looking after the health of your eyes. They can be ophthalmologists (eye doctors) or optometrists. To keep your eyes in good health, have your eyes checked regularly or when you are having problems with your vision. Learn more about your eyes and ask your eye doctor questions when you have them. Learning more about your eyes and how to prevent eye diseases will help you to feel more in control of your health.[1]
- If you don't have any vision problems, you should visit an eye care practitioner every 5-10 years during your 20s and 30s.
- If you don't have any vision problems, you should visit an eye care practitioner every 2-4 years between the ages of 40 and 65.
- If you don't have any vision problems, you should visit an eye care practitioner every 1-2 years after the age of 65.
- Take your contacts out at the end of the day. Avoid wearing contact lenses for more than 19 hours. Wearing contact lenses for too long can cause permanent vision damage as well as extreme discomfort to your eyes.[2]
- Never sleep with your contact lenses in unless your doctor specifically instructs you to do so. Your eyes need regular supplies of oxygen, and lenses block the flow of oxygen to the eyes, especially during sleep, so doctors recommend a normal break from wearing contact lenses for your eyes during the night.[3]
- Do not swim while wearing contact lenses unless you are wearing tight fitting swimming goggles. It's better to use prescription goggles if needed. It is fine to wear contacts in the shower providing you keep your eyes closed when you are likely to get soap or shampoo in your eyes.
- Follow the instructions from the manufacturer and your eye care practitioner about using the contact lenses and the solutions. One of the most important caveats is to wash your hands before handling your contact lenses.
- Remove your eye makeup at the end of the day. Always take time to remove your eye makeup before you go to bed. Never go to bed with your eye makeup still on. If you go to bed with mascara or eyeliner on, it can get into your eyes and cause irritation.
- Sleeping in your eye makeup can also cause the pores around your eyes to become clogged, which can lead to styes or (hordeolum) . A severe sty can require antibiotics or even need to be removed by a doctor.[4][5]
- Keep makeup remover pads near your bed for times when you are too tired to go through your nighttime cleansing routine.
- Use allergen-reducing eye drops sparingly. Using an allergen-reducing eye drop during allergy season may help 'get the red out' and sooth itchiness, but daily use can actually make the problem worse. It can cause something called rebound redness, which results in excessive eye redness because eyes no longer respond to eye drops.[6]
- Allergen-reducing eye drops work by constricting the blood flow to the cornea, which deprives it of oxygen. So while your eyes don't feel inflamed and itchy anymore, they're actually not getting enough oxygen from blood. That's not ideal, because the eye muscles and tissues need oxygen to function. The lack of oxygen can even result in swelling and scarring.[7][8]
- Read the labels of eye drops carefully, especially if you wear contacts. Many eye drops cannot be used while wearing contacts. Ask your eye care practitioner what kind of eye drops are okay to use with contacts.
- Wear UV protective sunglasses. Always wear sunglasses when you are outside and the sun is shining. Look for sunglasses that have a sticker that specifies that the lenses block 99% or 100% of UVB and UVA rays.[9]
- Prolonged exposure to UV rays can harm your eyesight, protection in youth can help prevent loss of eyesight in later years. Exposure to UV rays has been linked to cataracts, macular degeneration, pinguecula and pterygium, harmful conditions for the eyes.[10]
- Since the damage to eyes from UV rays builds up over a lifetime, it's important to shield children from harmful rays. Make sure your children wear hats and protective glasses when they are out in the sunlight for prolonged periods.
- Be sure to wear sunglasses even if you're in the shade. Even though shade lessens UV and HEV exposure significantly, you're still exposing your eyes to UV rays reflected off of buildings and other structures.
- Never stare directly into the sun even if you are wearing UV sunglasses. The sun's rays are very powerful and can damage the sensitive parts of the retina if exposed to full sunlight.
- Wear goggles when appropriate. Be sure to wear goggles or other eye protective wear when working with chemicals, power tools, or any place with harmful airborne particulates. Wearing goggles will help protect your eyes from any large or small objects that might hit you in the eye and cause damage.
- Get plenty of sleep. Inadequate sleep may contribute to eye fatigue. Symptoms of eye fatigue include eye irritation, difficulty focusing, dryness or excessive tears, blurred or double vision, light sensitivity, or pain in the neck, shoulders, or back. Make sure that you get enough sleep every night to help prevent eye fatigue. Adults require about 7-8 hours of sleep per night.[11]
- Exercise regularly. Regular exercise can help prevent other diseases such as diabetes. By getting at least 30 minutes of exercise three times per week, you can reduce your chances of developing serious eye diseases like glaucoma and macular degeneration.[12]
- Place cucumber slices on your eyelids to reduce puffiness. Press cold cucumber slices gently against eyelids for 10-15 minutes before going to sleep at night to help treat and prevent eyelid and under eye puffiness.[13]
- Green tea bags may also help prevent puffiness if applied to the eyes. Soak the tea bag in cold water for a few minutes and place over eyes for 15-20 minutes. The tannins in the tea should help reduce inflammation.
EditProtecting Your Eyes While Using a Computer - Limit your time looking at computer, tablet, and phone screens if possible. While science hasn't yet proven that looking at computer screens causes permanent eye damage, it may cause eye strain and dry eyes.[14] The glare from computer screens causes muscle fatigue in the eyes, either from being too bright or too dark. If you cannot limit your screen time, there are some techniques that you can use to give your eyes a break.
- Make sure that your eyes are level with the screen. Looking up or down at a computer screen for long periods of time can put extra strain on your eyes. Position your computer and yourself so that you are looking straight at the screen.[15]
- Remember to blink. People blink less when they're looking at a screen, causing drier eyes. Make a conscious effort to blink every 30 seconds when you're sitting down and looking at your computer screen to combat dry eyes.
- Follow the 20-20-20 rule when you are working on a computer. 20 minutes, look at something 20 feet away for 20 seconds. You can help yourself remember to take your breaks by setting alarms on your phone.[16]
- Work in well-lit areas. Working and reading in dim light can cause eye strain but will not damage your eyes. To make yourself more comfortable, only work and read in areas that are well lit. If your eyes feel tired, stop for a while and take a break.
EditEating for Good Eye Health - Eat foods that contribute to good eye health. Vitamins C and E, zinc, lutein, zeaxanthin, and omega-3 fatty acids are essential for healthy eyes. These nutrients can help prevent cataracts, clouding of your eye lens, and even age-related macular degeneration.[17][18]
- Overall a good healthy, balanced diet is going to be helpful for your eyes.
- Eat foods that contain vitamin E. Include seeds, nuts, wheat germ, and vegetable oils into your diet. These foods are rich in vitamin E, so incorporating some of them into your daily diet will help you to get you daily dose of vitamin E.[19][20]
- Eat foods that contain zinc. Include beef, pork, shellfish, peanuts, and legumes into your diet. These foods contain zinc, which is important for your eye health.[21]
- Eat foods that contain vitamin C. Include oranges, strawberries, broccoli, bell peppers, and brussels sprouts into your diet. These foods contain vitamin C, which is important for eye health.[22]
- Eat foods that contain lutein and zeaxanthin. Eat kale, spinach, broccoli, and peas. These vegetables contain lutein and zeaxanthin, which are both important nutrients for eye health. [23][24]
- Eat carrots. If you eat carrots, this leads to better eyesight.
- Eat foods that contain omega-3 fatty acids. Eat a serving of fish that contains omega-3 fats once or twice per week, such as wild salmon or sardines. Or, if you are not a fan of fish, take a daily omega-3 supplement.[25]
- Do not look at a bright light directly.
- Eat and drink more water and more vegetables eat lots of carrots.
- Sleep 7-8 hours a night to help prevent bad vision or any other health problems.
- Wash your hands before putting contacts in.
- If you suffer from any chronic conditions such as diabetes or hypertension, you should be seen by an ophthalmologist (doctor who specializes in all diseases of the eye). Patients with diabetes need to keep constant control of their blood sugar levels because they don't produce insulin.
- Don't use eye drops unless you are sure that they are right for you. While eye drops can make your eyes feel better, their medical benefits have not been entirely proven. If in doubt ask your pharmacist or eye care practitioner.
- In addition to eating well and taking good care of yourself and your eyes, visit your eye care practitioner every year. An eye care practitioner can diagnose problems that may be fixed with glasses, contacts, or surgery. An eye care practitioner will also check for dry eyes, problems with your retina, and even conditions of the whole body like diabetes and high blood pressure.
- Wear goggles when swimming.
- Don't rub your eyes too much.
- Keep an appropriate distance between your eyes and computer screen.
- Never look into the sun directly or with a telescope.
- Never put sharp objects in your eyes.
- Never put salt in your eyes.
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| How to Age Wood With Vinegar and Steel Wool Posted: 08 May 2016 01:00 AM PDT New furniture can be a lot sturdier and cheaper than antiques, but weathered wood tends to look a lot classier than brand new, untreated wood. To get the best of both worlds, many people opt to stain new wood. The process doesn't even require a trip to the hardware store—there's a good chance you already have everything you need at home. EditPreparing to Make Your Stain - Gather your materials. This is a fairly simple process that requires minimal supplies. You may already have them at home. If not, you should be able to find everything you need at a dollar store, grocery store, or somewhere like Target or Walmart.
- White distilled vinegar. Any brand will do.
- Steel wool. Fine graded is ideal because it disintegrates best, but any grade will work.[1]
- A container of some sort. This can be a bucket, a jar, a pot, a bowl, or whatever else you have on hand. If you dislike the smell of vinegar you may want to opt for a container you can close while the mixture sits, particularly if you want it to get quite dark, as this will involve letting it sit for a while.[2]
- Rubber gloves. These are optional, but a good idea if you are concerned about cutting your fingers on the steel wool, or if you plan on making a particularly dark solution that might stain your fingers.
- A strainer. This is also optional, as you can apply the stain straight from whatever container you made it in. This will come in handy if you want to transfer the liquid to another container to store and use again later.
- A paintbrush.
- Make sure you are staining an appropriate kind of wood. Some woods will work better than others. You don't want to go to the trouble of making a stain only to discover that it won't stain.[3]
- Wood with bifurcated grains is best, particularly where the wood grain is layered in hard/soft layers, so the soft layers are affected by the process but the hard layers are not, causing the wood to look old.
- Softwoods are easier to work with than hardwoods. Southern yellow pine, western cedar, and fir are excellent candidates for aging. Red oak, maple, or other slow-growing, tightly grained woods are not.[4]
- Hardwoods with a distinct grain, such as hickory, white oak, elm, or ash, can also work well.[5]
- This method is not appropriate for laminate flooring, as the vinegar will likely cause the glue holding the layers together to fall apart.
- Decide how you want your wood to look. Stains made with steel wool and vinegar range from a reddish, rusty brown, to a very dark, burnt brown. They also range in intensity from very subtle, to very intense. These factors are influenced by the ratio of steel wool to vinegar, and by how long you let the mixture sit. Before you begin, decide approximately color stain you want to create, and plan accordingly.
- The color of the stain is determined by how long it sits. Stain soaked for just a couple days will have a dark, burnt tone. The longer it sits, the rustier in color it will become.[6]
- The intensity of the stain is determined both by how many steel wool pads you use, and how long you let the mixture sit. 1-3 steel wool pads to a half-gallon of vinegar should work for most projects. If you want your stain to darken faster, try adding another steel wool pad. If it becomes too dark, simply dilute it with water.
EditMaking Your Stain - Break up your steel wool. This step is not strictly required, but it will help the disintegration process and speed things up. You will want to wear plastic gloves to avoid cutting your fingers. Break apart the steel wool pads, and put the pieces in the container you are mixing your stain in.
- Combine your materials. This is pretty straightforward. Just pour the vinegar over the steel wool. Give it a good mix, and put the cover on.[7]
- Let it sit. You can create a very subtle stain in just 15 minutes or so, but you will probably want to wait longer. 2-4 days will make a stain suitable for most projects, but you can let the mixture steep for months at a time to create a more dramatic effect.[8]
- Strain the stain. This is an optional step, and is more important if you plan on storing the stain for later use. When it reaches the color you want, you can pour the mixture through a colander and into a new, sealable container. You can also use it straight from whatever container it is in.[9]
EditApplying Your Stain - Stain a test surface. Without knowing what your stain looks like when applied, you might not want to brush it onto your furniture just yet. Brush some onto a scrap piece of the same sort of wood, or a part of whatever you are staining that is not usually visible, and wait an hour. If you don't like the color you end up with, make adjustments to your mixture; add more steel wool or wait longer if you want it to be darker, wait longer if you want it to be redder, or dilute it with water if you want it to be subtler.[10]
- Sand the wood. Sanding your wood down before painting it can give it an even more dramatically weathered look. This step is optional, and your stain should look good with or without it. It's just a matter of what effect you want to achieve. [11]
- Brush the stain onto the wood. There is no particular technique necessary for this. Brush in the direction of the grain, coating it evenly, and let it sit to allow the stain to penetrate the wood.[12] Then just let it dry, and sit back and admire your work.
- Wax the wood. You can choose whether or not to do this based on how you want the final product to look. For a polished sheen, wait for the wood to dry completely, brush on the wax, let it dry for an hour, and polish it with a towel. If you want a more natural, weather-beaten look, skip this step.
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