How to of the Day

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• How to Increase Bone Density
• How to Make a Candle out of an Orange
• How to Find Capacitance

How to Increase Bone Density Posted: 11 Dec 2016 04:00 PM PST What do you think of when you think about bones? If you said "Halloween skeleton," you're not alone. However, it's important to remember that the bones inside your body are not dead or "dry." They are made of living tissue that is constantly being destroyed and rebuilt. As you age, bone deterioration starts to surpass growth rate, causing a decrease in bone density. Taking steps to increase your bone mass and density throughout your life decreases your chances of osteoporosis, bone breakage, and fractures as you age. EditSteps EditChoosing Bone-Healthy Foods Consume plenty of calcium. Calcium is the single most abundant mineral in your body, and about 99% of it is found in your bones and teeth.[1] Getting sufficient calcium will help you grow healthy bones and maintain bone density.[2] Many Americans, especially women, do not get enough calcium in their daily diets.[3] The recommended daily intake of calcium varies depending on your age and sex.[4] Adult men under 70 and women under 50 should get at least 1,000mg of calcium per day. Men over 70 and women over 50 should get at least 1,200mg per day. Pregnant or lactating women should consume at least 1,300mg of calcium daily. Americans get most of their calcium from dairy products such as milk, cheese, and yogurt, which are very rich sources of calcium.[5] If you choose soymilk, almond milk, or other dairy substitutes, look for ones that have been fortified with calcium. Vegetable sources rich in calcium include turnips and collard greens, Chinese cabbage (bok choi), black-eyed peas, kale, and broccoli.[6] Although it's good for you, spinach is not great as a source of calcium because its oxalic acid reduces the availability of its calcium to your body.[7] Canned sardines and canned salmon are a good source of calcium (the bones in these canned fish are meant to be eaten). Sardines and salmon are also excellent sources of omega-3 fatty acids, which are vital for brain health.[8] In addition, they contain vitamin D, which helps your body absorb calcium. Choose whole-grain breakfast cereals that have been fortified with calcium and other nutrients and are low in sugar. Because many people eat these cereals daily with milk, they're a good, consistent source of calcium. Calcium is also available in dietary supplements. The two main forms are calcium carbonate and calcium citrate. Calcium carbonate should be taken with food. Calcium citrate is more expensive, but it doesn't require food when you take it so it can be helpful for those with inflammatory bowel disease or absorption disorders.[9] If you get enough calcium from your diet, don't take calcium supplements unless recommended by your doctor. Too much calcium may have unpleasant side effects, including the possibility of kidney stones.[10] Get plenty of vitamin D. Vitamin D helps improve your body's ability to absorb calcium. It's also a crucial component in bone rebuilding.[11] People under the age of 70 should get at least 600IU of vitamin D daily; people over 70 should get at least 800IU daily.[12] If you are at risk for Vitamin D deficiency, your doctor can measure your blood levels to determine your needs. Vitamin D is not present in most foods. Fatty fish, such as swordfish, salmon, tuna, and mackerel are the best sources of natural vitamin D (and also provide omega-3 fatty acids). Beef liver, cheese, some mushrooms, and egg yolks contain small amounts of vitamin D.[13] Milk is commonly fortified with vitamins A and D. Many beverages and cereals are also enriched with vitamin D. You can check the nutritional content of many foods by consulting the USDA National Nutrient Database here. Spending time in the sunshine is another great way to get vitamin D. Ultraviolet rays trigger vitamin D synthesis in your body, although people with higher levels of melanin (thus, darker skin) produce less vitamin D this way.[14] Use a sunscreen with a broad-spectrum SPF factor of at least 15 whenever you spend time outside.[15] However, many experts feel that 5-10 minutes daily in the sun without sunscreen is safe and can help you produce even more Vitamin D. Vitamin D is also available as a dietary supplement. It is available in two forms, D2 and D3. Both seem equally potent in regular doses, although D2 may be less potent in high doses. Vitamin D toxicity is rare. Eat foods with magnesium. Magnesium is an important mineral for every part of your body, including your bones. 50-60% of the magnesium in your body is in your bones. Many people don't get enough magnesium in their diets. Adult males should get at least 400-420mg per day, and adult females should get at least 310-320mg per day.[16] There are many rich sources of dietary magnesium, including: Almonds, cashews, peanuts, and peanut butter Green leafy vegetables like spinach Whole grains and legumes, especially black beans and soybeans Avocados, potatoes with their skins, and bananas Magnesium competes with calcium for absorption. If you have low calcium levels, magnesium may cause a calcium deficiency. However, if you get enough calcium in your diet, you probably don't have to worry about these effects.[17] Eat foods rich in B vitamins. Vitamin B12 deficiency may reduce your number of osteoblasts, cells that are responsible for forming new bone. People with vitamin B12 deficiencies are more likely to suffer bone fractures and more rapid bone loss.[18] Adults should get at least 2.4mcg of Vitamin B12 daily. Good dietary sources of Vitamin B12 include:[19][20] Organ meats, such as liver and kidney Beef and other red meats such as venison Shellfish, especially clams and oysters Fish, fortified cereals, and dairy products Grains and vegetables contain very little to no B12. Nutritional yeast may contain B12. Vegetarians and vegans may find it more difficult to get adequate B12. B12 can also be taken as a nutritional supplement as a capsule or sublingual liquid.[21] Get enough vitamin C. Your bones are made up mostly of collagen, a protein that provides the "skeleton" of the bone that calcium then fortifies.[22] Vitamin C stimulates procollagen and enhances collagen synthesis. Getting enough vitamin C in your diet can increase your bone mineral density, especially if you're a postmenopausal woman.[23][24] Adult men should get at least 90mg of vitamin C per day, and adult women should get at least 75mg per day. Good dietary sources of vitamin C include:[25] Citrus fruits and juices, red and green peppers, tomatoes, kiwifruit, strawberries, cantaloupe, and Brussels sprouts Cabbage, cauliflower, potatoes, spinach, and peas Fortified cereals and other products Most people get enough vitamin C through foods. However, if you need more vitamin C, you can get it in many supplements, such as Ester-C®.[26] Smokers should consume at least 35mg more than the daily recommendation, because smoke decreases your body's vitamin C levels. Consume enough Vitamin K. Vitamin K increases bone density and may even reduce your risk of fractures.[27][28] Adult males should get at least 120mcg per day, and adult females should get at least 90mcg per day. Most people get enough vitamin K from their diet. Your intestinal bacteria also produce vitamin K.[29] Vitamin K is found in many foods, but good sources include:[30] Green leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale, broccoli, and collard and turnip greens Vegetable oils, especially soybean oil, and nuts Fruits such as berries, grapes, and figs Fermented foods, especially Natto (fermented soybeans) and cheese Watch Vitamin E consumption. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that has anti-inflammatory properties. It's an important part of a healthy, balanced diet. Adults should get at least 15mg/22.4IU per day. However, you should be careful about vitamin E supplements; these usually provide more than 100IU per dose, far more than the recommended daily intake.[31] Several studies suggest that consuming vitamin E supplements may decrease bone mass and reduce new bone formation.[32][33] Getting sufficient vitamin E from dietary sources is unlikely to pose a threat to your bones, and can provide many health benefits. Good dietary sources of vitamin E include seeds, nuts, plant oils, spinach, broccoli, kiwifruit, mango, tomato, and spinach.[34] Monitor your caffeine and alcohol intake. The link between caffeine and bone density is still not entirely clear. However, it appears that some caffeinated beverages, such as colas and coffee, may be associated with bone loss.[35] Other beverages containing caffeine, like black tea, do not impact bone density.[36] Heavy alcohol drinking is bad for your body, including your bones.[37] Colas may cause even more harm to your bones, possibly related to the phosphorous contained in these drinks. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism states that "low-risk" or "moderate" drinking is the safest way to avoid damage to your health from alcohol. This is defined as no more than three drinks on a given day, and no more than seven per week for women. For men, it's no more than four drinks on a given day, and no more than 14 per week.[38] EditMaking Smart Lifestyle Choices Get 30 minutes of weight-bearing exercise daily. When muscles are exercised they pull on the bones they are attached to. This pulling action builds bone tissue, so weight-bearing exercises build stronger, denser bones.[39] Building bone mass before age 30 is beneficial later in life when bones are breaking down. Weight-bearing exercise throughout your life helps to maintain bone density. Unlike aerobic exercise, weight bearing exercise does not need to be done all at once to be beneficial. Doing 10 minutes of weight bearing exercise three times a day is equally as beneficial as a half-hour workout. The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons recommend activities like brisk walking, hiking, aerobics, tennis, dancing, and weight training to help build and maintain bone mass.[40] Jump around. Jumping as high as you can isn't just for kids! It may be good for increasing bone density. A recent study of premenopausal women showed that jumping just ten times per day, twice a day, can help increase bone mineral density and stave off bone thinning.[41] Stand barefoot on a solid floor. Jump as high as you can. Take a short break (30 seconds) between each jump. You could also try jumping jacks, or using a trampoline. Stay consistent. You have to jump every day, over a significant period of time, to see the benefits. Jumping is not recommended for people who already have osteoporosis, as this could lead to falls or bone breakage. It would also not be recommended for people with hip or leg problems or certain other medical conditions—check with your doctor if you aren't sure if you should be jumping. Strengthen your muscles. Your muscles help keep your bones in place, and strengthening them will help you build and maintain bone density.[42] Weight training, elastic exercise bands, and exercises that use your own body weight like pushups are excellent for strengthening. Yoga and Pilates can also improve strength and flexibility. However, people who already have osteoporosis should not do certain positions, as it may increase the risk of bone fracture or breakage. If you're concerned about your risk factors, consult with your doctor or a physical therapist to see what exercises will be best for you. Stop smoking. You probably already know that smoking is extremely unhealthy. But did you know that smoking is associated with a higher risk of developing osteoporosis?[43] Smoking interferes with your body's ability to use minerals and nutrients.[44][45] In fact, smoking is directly linked to lower bone density.[46] If you smoke, quitting quickly decreases your risk for many diseases.[47] The longer you smoke, the higher your risk is of low bone density and fractures. Secondhand smoke exposure during youth and early adulthood may increase your risk of developing low bone mass later.[48] Smoking also reduces the production of estrogen in women, which can also lead to weaker bones. See your doctor if diet and exercise is not enough. Even if bone loss has already begun, your doctor may prescribe medications to slow down the process.[49] Your doctor may also look at your vitamin and mineral intake and blood levels to help you determine your needs. Estrogens and progestins help maintain bone density in both men and women. The aging process decreases the amount of these hormones your body produces. Hormone supplements including estrogen products may reduce your risk of developing osteoporosis. Medications that can help treat or prevent osteoporosis include ibandronate (Boniva), alendronate (Fosamax), risedronate sodium (Actonel), and zoledronic acid (Reclast).[50] EditTips People naturally at high risk for osteoporosis include women, older people, White and Asian people, and people with small frames. Certain medications, such as steroids, can also increase your risk of osteoporosis. Anorexia nervosa can also increase your risk of osteoporosis. If you're at risk for osteoporosis, or older than 50, you should see your doctor to get a bone density test.[51] EditRelated wikiHows Build Stronger Bones Prevent Osteoporosis EditSources and Citations Cite error: <ref> tags exist, but no <references/> tag was found

How to Make a Candle out of an Orange Posted: 11 Dec 2016 08:00 AM PST Typical, store bought holiday candles can be dull when compared to homemade candles. And one truly unique option is to fashion a candle from an orange! This fun holiday craft will add ambiance to your next get-together, brighten your home and use up any unwanted oranges. This project is easy, inexpensive and suitable for anyone comfortable with handling a knife for carving. EditSteps Prepare your oranges. Cut the orange on the cutting board. Use the paring knife to slice into the peel of the orange. Insert only as far as the pith, taking the knife around the middle of the orange, going all the way around the circumference. Peel the orange. Gently push your finger under the skin of the orange and peel the skin away so that it separates from the orange without tearing. Locate the "wick". Once separated from orange flesh, the orange peel should be easy to remove. When removing the orange flesh, a white wick-like "stem" part should remain––leave this intact, still attached to the peel. Add oil. Pour olive oil (approximately 3 tablespoons) to cover the stem and allow wick to soak for a 2-3 minutes. Create a design. The design is both pretty and functional, as it allows the candle to breathe. Create a design on paper first, to help prevent mistakes when cutting the orange. Then, take the top off the orange and score out the design you've made, using the paring knife. Light the candle. Light the orange's stem with a lighter. This may take a couple of attempts. It might be easier to use extra long barbecue matches if you feel it's too cramped using a lighter. Place the top half (with its pre-designed hole) onto the bottom half with the wick. This completes the candle. Enjoy! EditVideo EditTips Make sure the orange used is relatively large. Make sure the paring knife is larger than the orange (about 8-10 inches/20-25cm in length). EditWarnings Make sure flame does not touch the top of the orange so that it doesn't burn it. If this begins to happen, make the hole bigger. Use caution while using paring knife. Try to cut away from your hands or body. Never leave lighted candles unattended. Be careful while using the lighter when lighting the candle. EditThings You'll Need Orange (on the large side) Cutting board Paring knife Olive oil or vegetable oil (you can add a few drops of orange oil for scent if desired) Lighter EditRelated wikiHows Make Designer Leaf Candles Make Water Candles Make a Candle in a Nutshell Make Sand Candles Make Decorative Candles for Christmas Make Beer Candles Make a Foam Netting and Plastic Bottle Lantern EditSources and Citations Videos provided by HouseholdHacker

How to Find Capacitance Posted: 11 Dec 2016 12:00 AM PST The capacitance of an object is the ability for it to hold electric charge. Capacitance is related to charge and electric potential by the relation ${\displaystyle C={\frac {Q}{V}}.}$ Assuming the existence of an electric charge ${\displaystyle Q,}$ finding the capacitance of an object will therefore require the calculation of the electric field and its associated potential before evaluating. The capacitors in this article all exhibit some form of symmetry, which allows for the electric field to easily be evaluated. (Almost all problems using Gauss's law require some form of symmetry for the integrals to be evaluated analytically.) EditPreliminaries Gauss's law: the electric flux penetrating a surface bounding a volume is equal to the charge enclosed within the volume. ${\displaystyle \oint _{S}{\mathbf {E} }\cdot {\mathrm {d} }{\mathbf {S} }={\frac {Q}{\epsilon _{0}}}}$ Electric potential is related to the electric field by the line integral below. In electrostatics, the electric field is defined to be conservative, so the field exhibits path-independence. Therefore, evaluation will only depend on values at the boundaries, and not on the specific path taken. The curve ${\displaystyle C}$ is being taken from the point of 0 potential to some other point. ${\displaystyle V=-\int _{C}{\mathbf {E} }\cdot {\mathrm {d} }{\mathbf {l} }}$ EditSteps EditParallel-plate Capacitor Find the electric field. The principle of superposition allows us to find the electric field of only one of the plates. In this case, we use a Gaussian pillbox. This pillbox has a face parallel to the plate with area ${\displaystyle A.}$ Let's define an areal charge density ${\displaystyle \sigma ={\frac {Q}{A}},}$ with units of charge per unit area. Because the electric field is perpendicular to the surface, only the ends of the pillbox will contribute to it. ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\oint _{S}{\mathbf {E} }\cdot {\mathrm {d} }{\mathbf {S} }&={\frac {Q}{\epsilon _{0}}}\\E2A&={\frac {Q}{\epsilon _{0}}}\\E&={\frac {Q}{2A\epsilon _{0}}}\\E&={\frac {\sigma }{2\epsilon _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}$ Since we are dealing with two parallel plates that have charge densities ${\displaystyle +\sigma }$ and ${\displaystyle -\sigma ,}$ we recognize that when we consider the negatively charged plate only, the electric field points towards it. By the superposition principle, the electric field between the plates is doubled. As we are only interested in the magnitude of the electric field, its direction is ignored. ${\displaystyle E={\frac {\sigma }{\epsilon _{0}}}}$ Find the electric potential. We assume that the plates are a distance ${\displaystyle d}$ apart. Then, we recall that the electric field is conservative, so it exhibits path-independence, again allowing for easy evaluation of the integral. Potential is always evaluated from high to low potential - in other words, in the direction of the electric field. Furthermore, when we find potential, we are only interested in finding its magnitude. ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&=-\int _{C}{\mathbf {E} }\cdot {\mathrm {d} }{\mathbf {l} }\\&=Ed\\&={\frac {\sigma }{\epsilon _{0}}}d\\&={\frac {Qd}{A\epsilon _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}$ Find the capacitance. Using the relation ${\displaystyle C={\frac {Q}{V}}}$ as outlined earlier, we evaluate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor below, where ${\displaystyle C}$ is found to be independent of both ${\displaystyle Q}$ and ${\displaystyle V.}$ ${\displaystyle C={\frac {A\epsilon _{0}}{d}}}$ EditCylindrical Capacitor Find the electric field. We use a cylindrical Gaussian surface with radius ${\displaystyle r}$ between the two cylindrical conductors to determine electric field, where the inner cylinder has radius ${\displaystyle r_{1},}$ the outer cylinder has radius ${\displaystyle r_{2},}$ both cylinders have length ${\displaystyle L,}$ and ${\displaystyle r_{1}<r<r_{2}\ll L.}$ As before, the electric field is perpendicular to the plates, so the tops of the Gaussian surface do not contribute. Only the side with area ${\displaystyle A=2\pi rL}$ does. ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\oint _{S}{\mathbf {E} }\cdot {\mathrm {d} }{\mathbf {S} }&={\frac {Q}{\epsilon _{0}}}\\E2\pi rL&={\frac {Q}{\epsilon _{0}}}\\E&={\frac {Q}{2\pi rL\epsilon _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}$ The electric field is pointing radially from the center of the cylinders. Find the potential. We are evaluating from ${\displaystyle r_{1}}$ to ${\displaystyle r_{2}.}$ ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&=\int _{r_{1}}^{r_{2}}{\frac {Q}{2\pi rL\epsilon _{0}}}{\mathrm {d} }r\\&={\frac {Q}{2\pi L\epsilon _{0}}}\int _{r_{1}}^{r_{2}}{\frac {1}{r}}{\mathrm {d} }r\\&={\frac {Q}{2\pi L\epsilon _{0}}}\ln {\frac {r_{2}}{r_{1}}}\end{aligned}}}$ Find the capacitance. The charges cancel out, and once again, the capacitance is independent of charge. ${\displaystyle C={\frac {2\pi L\epsilon _{0}}{\ln {\frac {r_{2}}{r_{1}}}}}}$ EditSpherical Capacitor Find the electric field. We use a spherical Gaussian surface with radius ${\displaystyle r}$ between the two spherical conductors to determine electric field, where the inner sphere has radius ${\displaystyle a,}$ the outer sphere has radius ${\displaystyle b,}$ and ${\displaystyle a<r<b.}$ The area of the Gaussian sphere is ${\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}.}$ ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\oint _{S}{\mathbf {E} }\cdot {\mathrm {d} }{\mathbf {S} }&={\frac {Q}{\epsilon _{0}}}\\E4\pi r^{2}&={\frac {Q}{\epsilon _{0}}}\\E&={\frac {Q}{4\pi r^{2}\epsilon _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}$ This is the same electric field as that of a point charge. The field points radially from the center of the spheres. Find the potential. We are integrating from ${\displaystyle a}$ to ${\displaystyle b.}$ ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&=-\int _{C}{\mathbf {E} }\cdot {\mathrm {d} }{\mathbf {l} }\\&={\frac {Q}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}\int _{a}^{b}{\frac {1}{r^{2}}}{\mathrm {d} }r\\&={\frac {Q}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}\left({\frac {-1}{b}}-{\frac {-1}{a}}\right)\\&={\frac {Q}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}\left({\frac {1}{a}}-{\frac {1}{b}}\right)\end{aligned}}}$ Find the capacitance. The expression ${\displaystyle {\frac {1}{a}}-{\frac {1}{b}}}$ can be simplified into ${\displaystyle {\frac {b-a}{ab}}.}$ ${\displaystyle C=4\pi \epsilon _{0}\left({\frac {ab}{b-a}}\right)}$ EditTips It is interesting to consider the capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor. In this case, ${\displaystyle b\to \infty ,}$ so the potential is evaluated as below instead. ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&={\frac {Q}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}\left({\frac {1}{a}}-{\frac {1}{\infty }}\right)\\&={\frac {Q}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}a}}\end{aligned}}}$ Then, the capacitance of this isolated sphere evaluates to ${\displaystyle C=4\pi \epsilon _{0}a.}$

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